It's our style	Kathy Hall Senior Editor
Home page   Env & Occ Health style manual   Publications   Web site development   Editor's bookshelf   Resources for writers   Background   Ask the editor	Departmental style manual |A|B|C|D|E|F|G|H|I|J|K|L|M|N|O|P|Q|R|S|T|U|V|W|X|Y|Z| A matter of style   The Department's style for nonscientific publications relies mostly on two references: The Chicago Manual of Style (currently the 15th edition) and Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th edition). Deviations from these two manuals are described below. See Resources for Writers for other style and grammar references.   If you have style questions or would like to see other topics addressed in this list, e-mail Kathy Hall. This list is evolving and will be lengthened. A a and an   Before an abbreviation, the preferred style is "an" if the sounded-out letter sounds like a vowel: an MPH, an NAACP position, an NFL team. If the abbreviation is widely pronounced as though it were a word, the article is determined by the pronunciation of the word, a NATO meeting.   abbreviations and acronyms - The first time a commonly abbreviated term is used, it should be spelled out completely, followed by the abbreviation in parenthesis: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). We deviate from the Chicago Manual of Style in that we don't put a period in US (which forms a word) or academic titles such as PhD. View a list of our most commonly used acronyms academic degrees - We deviate from the Chicago Manual of Style by not putting a period in academic titles such as MS or PhD. The names of academic degrees and honors should be capitalized when following a name, whether abbreviated or written in full: Clyde M. Haverstick, Doctor of Law; Joseph Hershall, MD. When academic degrees are referred to in general terms: doctorate, bachelor's degree, master of science, they are not capitalized. act - Capitalize when part of pending or implemented legislation: Clean Air Act.   adopt, approve, enact, pass, promulgate - Amendments, resolutions, and rules are adopted or approved. Bills are passed. Laws are enacted (made into law) or promulgated (put in force).   affect/effect - Affect is almost always a verb meaning "to influence" or "to pretend to have." Effect is almost always a noun that means "result." The program will affect millions of people. The senator questioned the effect of the tax cut.   agreement - Subject and verb must agree in person and in number. This isn't as easy as it sounds, because the subject is not always clear, and intervening phrases can muddy the water. The key is to identify the subject first, then determine whether it is singular or plural.   annual - Do not refer to an event as annual until it has been held at least two consecutive years. Do not use "first annual." Say an event will be held annually. We publish a biennial report and adopt a biennial budget because they occur every two years or continue or last for two years (per Webster). Biannual means "occurring twice a year."   B back to top   bibliographic style - Ours differs from Chicago, but is similar to PubMed. We use initials (no period) on all authors, boldface departmental authors, abbreviate name of Journal using Medline abbreviations, capitalize only the first word and proper names, and use the volume, and number if appropriate. Here are some examples:   Bartell SM, Neal GE, Eaton DL, Judah DJ, Verma A. The metabolism and toxicity of aflatoxins M1 and B1 in human-derived in vitro systems. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1998; 151:152-158.   Brodkin CA. Cited IN: Schuchman M., Secrecy in science: The flock worker's lung investigation. Ann Int Med 1998; 129(4):341-344.   Costa LG, Manzo L. Biomarkers in occupational neurotoxicology. IN: Occupational Neurotoxicology. LG Costa, L Manzo, eds. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1998; 75-100.   bio- generally no hyphen: bioengineering   biotechnology - many of these terms are too new for my Webster's, so let's use the glossary of the National Human Genome Research Institute   Boeing - Call it "The Boeing Co."   bullet points - see lists   C back to top   capitalization - Capitalize formal titles that precede a name, and lowercase those that follow and are set off by commas: Professor Dave Kalman, but Dave Kalman, professor of Environmental Health Don't capitalize words to emphasize their importance. Wrong: She is head of her Division in the Company. Don't capitalize "department" when it stands alone: the department. Titles: we deviate from Chicago as we capitalize titles before and after a name. We also capitalize “Center” and “School” when referring to the Northwest Center or the School of Public Health. University departments are capitalized when "Department of" is understood: Epidemiology, Environmental Health, but lower-cased in the less formal: history department. Full official names of associations, societies, unions, meetings, and conferences are capitalized. A "The" preceding a name is lowercased in text, even when it its part of the official title. such generic terms as society, union, or conference are lowercased when used alone. Congress of Industrial Organizations; CIO; the union; Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the American Historical Association; the annual meeting of the association. Don't capitalize "disease" in Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, or similar usages See composition titles and Web catalog - not "catalogue"   Certified Industrial Hygienist - Capitalize like Certified Public Accountant.   chair - lower case: the chair of the department   citations - see bibliographic style   clean up (verb), cleanup (noun and adjective)   collective nouns - Nouns that denote a unit take singular verbs and pronouns. These include "class," "committee," " staff ": The committee is meeting to set its agenda. The staff wants to work late to finish the project.   colon - The most frequent use of a colon is at the end of a sentence to introduce lists, tabulations, and texts. Capitalize the first word after a colon only if it is a proper noun or the start of a complete sentence. The colon also can be used for emphasis: There was only one thing on his mind: finishing the project on time. Avoid using a colon immediately after a verb. Say: "The list includes the following: ..." rather than "The list includes: ..."   comma - Use a comma (called a serial comma) after each element in a series: Through the state fund, injured workers are compensated for time loss, medical care, and return to work assistance Use commas to separate a series of adjectives equal in rank. If the commas could be replaced by the word "and" without changing the sense, the adjectives are equal: A happy, productive worker. A thick, black cloud. Use no comma when the last adjective before a noun outranks its predecessors because it is an integral element of a noun phrase: A complicated research project. The comma always goes inside quotation marks. Use commas to set off a year in complete dates: The report will be released July 1,2000, for agency review. Omit the second comma when some other punctuation mark follows the year: The report will be finished July 1, 2000 (for review purposes only). No comma if the month stands without the date: July 2000. composition titles - We deviate from the Chicago Manual of Style, which would have us capitalize the principal words in titles. The DEH style is to capitalize only the first word, proper nouns and the first word of a subhead (after a colon): Dealing with Hanford's legacy or Risk assessment: We need more than an ecological veneer.   consistency - Style manuals and dictionaries often differ in their usage. Whichever style you use, use it consistently throughout the document.   course work - two words   D back to top   dashes - Use sparingly; commas are often preferred. In text, the en dash is preferred (option-hyphen in most programs) with no space before or after. Be careful when text is converted into HTML. For HTML documents, such as this one, use a simple hyphen with spaces around it.   database -one word   dates - Spell out months, except when necessary in tabular information. Always use numerals, and don't use "st," "nd," "rd," or "th": The report was issued April 13,1999. Spell out months when used alone or with a year: The report was issued in April 1999. Note that there is no comma between the month and year, unless a date is specified.   decision making - Two words as a noun, hyphenated as an adjective: The decision-making process. He aided in the decision making.   Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences - the new name takes effect in January 2003. On second reference, "the department" is preferred to DEOHS.   dictionary - For consistency, the departmental standard will be Webster's Tenth New Collegiate Dictionary. Note that certain spellings, such as "groundwater" will differ from dictionary to dictionary, and from one version of Webster's to another.   doctor - Use for both medical degrees and doctor of philosophy or other earned doctorates. Abbreviate as Dr. and use if another title doesn't precede the name or if you don't also specify the degree: Dr. David Eaton, but Professor David Eaton, David Eaton, PhD. Plural is Drs. due to/because of - "due to" goes with a noun, and "because of" goes with a verb. The increase in humidity was due to recent rain. I felt enervated because of the humidity.   E back to top   e.g., representing two Latin words, exempli gratia, means for example. It has two periods and a comma. Don't confuse it with i.e. e-mail - hyphenated abbreviation for electronic mail   Environmental Health - Capitalize when referring to the department, lower case when referring to the discipline.   EPA Northwest Research Center for Particulate Air Pollution and Health - on second reference can use PM Center, Particulate Matter Center or the center.   F back to top   farmworker - one word fewer, less - "Fewer" refers to number, "less" to size: fewer apples, less capacity.   Field Group - Capitalize on second reference to the Field Research and Consultation Group.   For further reading - This feature in Environmental Health News spells out names in bibliographic references. Our normal bibliographic style is to abbreviate.   G back to top   greater, more than - "Greater" refers to size or largeness; "more than" to number.   H back to top   heavy metals - When writing for the general public, try to give examples when this term is used: The contaminated soil contained several heavy metals, including mercury, cadmium, and lead.   http - we use it in web addresses so that readers know not to type "www" into departmental and other university addresses: http://depts.washington.edu/envhlth. hyphen - Use a hyphen for compound words, especially those containing prepositions: president-elect, right-of-way. Also, use a hyphen to avoid confusion between elements of compound modifiers: the late-1999 survey, not the late 1999 survey, which implies the survey was late, because "late" modifies "survey," not "1999." Use a hyphen or hyphens when the prefix governs two or more words: non-civil-service job. Place a hyphen in spelled-out fractions: two-thirds. The following prefixes don't require hyphens: anti, bi, co, counter, de, inter, intra, multi, non, pre, pro, re, semi, sub, super, trans, un, under, wide. Neither do suffixes such as able, fold, ful, ize, less, ment, most, wise. Use a hyphen when the base element begins with a capital letter: mid-May. Use a hyphen when the word formed could be confused with another: re-cover, re-treat, re-form.   I back to top i.e., for the Latin id est, means that is. It has two periods and a comma. Don't confuse it with e.g.   Internet - We capitalize it,. See Web.   it's, its - "It's" is a contraction for "it is" or "it has": It's going to be a close vote. "Its" is the possessive form of the pronoun "it": The committee reached its decision. Note that a "committee" is not a "they."   L back to top Labor and Industries - In first reference, it is Washington state Department of Labor and Industries. L&I is fine for subsequent references. last, latest - "Last" implies finality: His last act before leaving office was to approve this project. "Latest" means "most recent": Attached is the latest version of the report. Iay, lie - "Lay" is the action word; it requires an object: lay an egg. Please lay the package there. "Lie" is the state of being: lie down. The past tense of "lay" is "laid": I laid the message on your desk. The past tense of "lie" is "lay": The mountain lay before us. legislature - Capitalize when preceded by the name of the state. Retain capitalization when the state name is dropped but the reference is specifically to that state's legislature. less than - Often confused with "fewer" and "under." In general, use "fewer" for individual items, "less" for bulk or quantity, and "under" for location. Proper usage would be: fewer people, fewer than 10 apples, less than 60 years, less than $10. like - It means "similar to" and is not a synonym for "as" or "as if." "Like" is a comparative, not a conjunction. He handles research like a veteran. He handles research as he should. lists - Lists are useful in text to save space and improve readability. To use this technique successfully: List only comparable items. Use parallel structure throughout. Use bullets or dashes when rank or sequence is not important. Do not overuse lists. They should reinforce, not replace text discussion. The introductory sentence preceding the list should end with a colon. If items in the list are complete sentences, capitalize and punctuate each line. Indent each item in the list if each develops a single idea. If words or phrases are used, lowercase the first word following the bullet, dash or number, and put a period after the last line. lockout/tagout - no hyphen, yes slash   M back to top   Medical Aid and Accident Funds - one use would be "This project was funded by employers and workers in Washington State through their contributions to the Medical Aid and Accident Funds."   microarray - one word. This is too new for my Webster's, so let's use the glossary of the National Human Genome Research Institute for this and other biotech terms multi - generally no hyphen as a prefix. multiyear, multidisciplinary.   musculoskeletal - one word, no hyphen   N back to top   nouns - Avoid using them as verbs. "Host," "impact," and "author" sound like jargon when they are used as verbs.   numbers - Spell out whole numbers one through ten. Use numerals for double-digit numbers above ten, except when they begin a sentence. This study identified 12 populations. Twelve populations were identified. Make an exception if you have a mix of numbers above and below ten: We bought 5 apples, 15 bananas, and 3 oranges. Use decimals, not fractions, unless you are being approximate, and then spell it out: about a quarter-mile. Use numerals in percentages: 4%. Spell out fractions standing alone or followed by "of a": one-tenth, one-half of a pie. Use a "0" before the decimal for fractions less than one: 0.2. In amounts more than a million (unless the exact amount is essential), round off to one decimal point. Write out the word "million" or "billion": The project is estimated to cost $5.7 million. Note that you use the "$" rather than spelling out "dollars." Spell out indefinite expressions: in his twenties, a million reasons. Use commas in numbers greater than 9999: 1234 but 12,345. Use numerals to refer to parts of a book: Chapter 9, page 87, Figure 5. Spell out numbers at the beginning of a sentence: Two hundred investigators worked on the experiment.   O back to top   on - Avoid using "on" before a date or day of the week. Change "the meeting will be held on December 12" to "the meeting will be held December 12."   online - Our style is to treat it as a single word. This one is still in flux, and Webster's Collegiate Dictionary still hyphenates it.   ongoing - one word, but use sparingly   on-site - two words   over, more than - "Over" indicates position, not quantity. Use "more than" to express number. Our study identified more than 100 cases. I would choose this system over any of the others.   P back to top   Pacific Northwest Agricultural Safety and Health Center - capitalize "C" in "Center." PNASH is acceptable on subsequent references, as is the center. parallel construction Parallel thoughts should be expressed in grammatically parallel terms. This gives an order to your writing that readers can follow. Instead of: This ordinance is comprehensive and of the utmost urgency, say: This ordinance is both comprehensive and urgent. Parallel construction is important in series. "The three potential sources of air quality impacts are fugitive dust and diesel exhaust from construction activities as well as from increased traffic" can be rewritten to read: "The three potential sources of air quality impacts are fugitive dust and diesel exhaust from construction, and increased traffic from operation." parentheses - Use parentheses only when the interruption is more marked than that usually indicated by comma, or to de-emphasize some explanatory matter. In a narrative (horizontal) list, place full parenthesis around numbers: The report contained four sections: (1) introduction, (2) discussion, (3) results, and (4) conclusion. Place a period outside a closing parenthesis if the material inside is not a sentence (such as this fragment). If the material enclosed in the parentheses is an independent sentence, place the period before the closing parenthesis. (Here is an example.) Use brackets to enclose material inside a parenthesis: (Whatcom [1997] reported similar results). part time, part-time - two words when used as a noun: He worked part time. Hyphenate when used as a compound modifier: She has a part-time job.   passive voice - Look at the verbs, the "engines" of the sentences, and eliminate forms of "to be" (is, are, were). Substitute active verbs and make the subject perform the action. You may have to search for the subject, which often isn't evident in passive sentences. Instead of: The watershed was closed to hiking, say: The City Council closed the watershed to hiking.   past - Use "past" instead of "last" in describing the most recent event. See last, latest. "Last" implies finality: The decision was made in the past (not last) two weeks. The latest (not last) announcement was made this noon.   PCBs - Spell out on first reference: polychlorinated biphenyls. The abbreviation "PCBs" (all caps, no apostrophe) may be used on second reference.   percent - we differ from Chicago and other references by using the % sign. It's one word when used alone: a smaller percentage of people responded.   periods - They always go inside quotation marks. They go inside parentheses if the parenthetical material is a complete sentence and can stand alone. They go outside the parentheses if the parenthetical material isn't a complete sentence.   plurals - For general guidelines, consult Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary. Some specific examples follow: His speech had too many ifs, ands, and buts. The project was completed in the 1950s. The map had two areas marked with A's.   PM Center - The formal name is EPA Northwest Research Center for Particulate Air Pollution and Health - on second reference can use PM Center, Particulate Matter Center or the center.   possessives - Follow these general rules: Add an "s" to plural nouns not ending in "s": women's basketball. Add only an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in "s": the citizens' committee. Add only an apostrophe to nouns plural in form, singular in meaning: United States' resources Add " 's" to singular nouns not ending in "s": the department's policy, the company's goals. Use only an apostrophe for singular proper names ending in "s": Williams' decision. Many pronouns have separate forms for the possessive that don't use an apostrophe: yours, ours, his, hers, its, theirs, whose. Use an apostrophe with a pronoun only when the meaning calls for a contraction: you're (you are), it's (it is).   postdoctoral - one word   potroom - one word   ppm - parts per million. Spell out on first reference unless in tabular material. The abbreviation "ppm" (lower case, no periods) may be used on the second reference.   professor - Use on first reference, Dr. on subsequent references. Capitalize if used before the name. Named academic professors and fellowships are usually capitalized wherever they appear. Mary M. Warren, Alfred R. Wellman Distinguished Service Professor; T. Peter Norsag, professor emeritus; Marcello Sonata, professor of music; Professor Sonata; the professor     Q back to top   quotation marks - If a quotation runs more than a full paragraph, do not put quotation marks at the end of the first paragraph, but put them at the start of the second paragraph. Put quotation marks around words used in an ironical sense or unfamiliar terms used on first reference: "Ghosting" occurs on television sets when more than one signal is received at a time. Don't use quotation marks indiscriminately. This raises the same credibility questions as when the supermarket advertises "fresh" bananas. Quotes within quotes: Use single quotation marks for passages contained within a direct quotation. If it comes at the end of a sentence, put a space between the quotation marks: She said, "He told me, 'I refuse to do it.' " Punctuation: The period and comma always go within the quotation marks. The dash, semicolon, question mark, and exclamation point go within the quotation marks when they apply to the quoted matter only. In most programs, quotation marks can be made the same way they are on the typewriter, or they can be made to look typeset by using the "option" keys. Simultaneously hitting the option and [ keys produces an opening quote, Option shift [ produces a closer, Option ] produces an opening single quote mark, and option shift ] produces the closer. Whichever style you use, be consistent throughout the document. Be careful in converting documents to HTML. Simple quotes are used in HTML documents such as this one. S back to top   scientific names - In first reference, enclose in parenthesis following the common name. Abbreviation of genus name (E. coli) is acceptable on second reference, but don't begin a sentence with an abbreviation. Be careful if you have more than one genus that begin with the same letter; spell out the genus in those cases. Italicize genus and species, and capitalize genus.   semi- no hyphen unless the root word begins with the same vowel as the prefix: semi-invalid, semifinal.   semicolon - Use the semicolon to indicate a greater separation of thought and information than a comma can convey, but less than the separation that a period implies. Use semicolons to separate elements of a series when individual segments contain material that also must be set off by commas. The semicolon is used before the final "and" in such a series: Speakers at the public meeting included Bruce Wilson, 9876 S.E. 51st Street; Rachel Warren, 736 S. Main; and Richard Benson, 1421 S.E. 39th Place. Use a semicolon to link independent clauses not joined by a conjunction: A site visit will be conducted May 21; the findings will be announced within a month. Semicolons should be placed outside quotation marks. sentence length - Readers can get lost in long sentences. The common readability tests, such as Flesch's Reading Ease Formula and Gunning's Fog Index, use sentence length as a factor. Flesch says an average of 17 words makes for good readability, and considers a 29-word or longer sentence "very difficult." However, length isn't the only factor that makes sentences difficult to read. Make sure the verb isn't too far from the subject, even in shorter sentences.   significant - jargon; avoid it unless you are talking about statistical significance.   soul catcher - two words - the logo of the school and department. Here is an explanation that can be used or shortened for publication: Soul Catcher is a legendary spirit among Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest associated with healing; a symbol of physical and mental well-being. Marvin Oliver's rendering (used here) is the symbol of the Department of Environmental Health and School of Public Health and Community Medicine at the University of Washington. If you shorten it, be sure to credit the artist.   spaces - put one, instead of two, after a sentence. Today's word processing programs, unlike yesterday's typewriters, make proportional spaces. The extra white space looks funny.   state - "State," like "city," doesn't need to be capitalized: state Legislature, the state's reputation for economic growth. Use state of Washington or Washington state. Spell out names of states in text, but abbreviate in tables or references. The Chicago Manual lists the preferred abbreviations in section 14.17 (Wash., Alaska (to avoid confusion with Alabama), Oreg. or Ore.) The two-letter abbreviations (WA, AK, OR) should be used with ZIP code addresses. T back to top   telephone numbers - we use an all-hyphen style: 206-685-6737.   that, which - "That" restricts the reader's thought and directs it the way you want it to go. Such a restrictive clause is essential to meaning: The river that flows by the site is at a low level. You are talking about a specific river, distinguishing it from many others. "Which" is nonrestrictive, introduces subsidiary information: The river, which overflows its banks every year, is now at a low level. This sentence would still make sense without the clause. Another clue is to look for the comma. If a comma is needed between clauses, "which" is the right word. If the comma doesn't sound right, use "that." The comma signals that the "which" clause isn't essential to the meaning of the sentence. they - An entity, such as a city council or a power company, is an "it," not a "they." You don't say: The City Council rescinded their decision. It's: The City Council rescinded its decision.   titles - see capitalization, composition titles, professor   U back to top   Undergraduate Program - capitalize   United States - Spell out in first reference; US (no periods) on second reference.   V   verb tenses - in a paper, use present tense to state theory or established knowledge and to say what your paper does (introduction, discussion, conclusions ); use past tense to describe what you did, to speak biographically of investigator's actions, and to set up historical continuum (procedures, methodology, literature review ); use future tense to outline recommendations for future work.   W back to top   Washington Growers League (no apostrophe) Washington state - Don't capitalize "state."   wastewater - one word   Web - we continue to capitalize this shortened form of the World Wide Web. Our primary dictionary, Merriam-Webster, still capitalizes it, and the EEI style manual for new media, E-What?, says "It's the Internet, also called the Net. It's the World Wide Web, frequently called the Web. These are proper nouns and should hang onto their capitals for dear life." Capitalize Web as a modifier: Web site. Lower case it as a prefix: webmaster.   Web page - two words. Likewise Web site   workforce - one word   work site - two words   workplace - one word   workers' compensation - Use the plural possessive.   Y back to top years - Express a range as 1997-99. As a stand-alone, you may use an apostrophe to represent the first two digits: '99, '00.
Page revised Sept. 15, 2003 by Kathy Hall	Back to Editor's Corner	To Intranet site